Philosophical and Religious Reverberations on the Silk Road and Corridors of Time
Roots of Ancient Religions, Sufism, Chan (Zen), American Transcendentalism and the Martial Arts
Protecting the Tree of Life
A literature review with extrapolation
INTRODUTION
Great trees have roots spread widely and deep - drinking from rivers with no beginnings or ends. Sometimes their roots intermingle so much it’s hard to tell one from the other; sometimes they are widely apart. Sometimes they grow together, sometimes in different directions. Yet, a tree is a tree, each unique in its own way yet they all have much in common. To deny their commonalities is as absurd as calling them all totally different. It seems all great faiths have mystic traditions surrounding and at the heart of them. These mystic traditions tend to be more Universalist in orientation, without a lot of the walls and boundaries surrounding most orthodox religion. Yet most stay true to the central guideposts of their ancient orthodox traditions. |
In this paper I primarily look at Sufi traditions focusing on those aspects closest to Chan (Zen) which some would say is Buddhism and others might call a more secular philosophy as over the centuries the Shaolin - the cradle in which Chan emerged in China - has sometimes followed traditional Buddhist Vinaya rule systems and sometimes not. Sufism and Chan are both supremely transcendent systems, distinctly different yet similar in many ways. And, as the following research will show, there have been reverberations, ebbs and flows of traditions reflecting back upon each other down through the ages.
In addition I’ve added a brief review of American transcendentalist systems which have widespread roots in several Eastern, Central Asian and Middle Eastern philosophies and religions. I added American Transcendental systems to this mix to help Americans realize that these ancient eastern philosophies are not totally foreign and strange at all, but have deep and meaningful roots in the U.S. as well. A tree, after all is a tree, wherever it may be.
Another essential fact deserves mention right at the beginning of any review such as this. Reading the following one might conclude that Sufism adopted some aspects of Buddhist philosophy and other disciplines, suggesting an India to Central Asia to Middle East flow of philosophical assimilation. In fact very diverse sources of information suggest that much of Buddhist (and Christian) philosophy originated from Mithraism in and around the Persian Empire (present day Iran and Central Asia), which dates back to about 1450 B.C.E. thus suggesting a kind of circular flow of information.
For more on the possible Persian origins of Buddhism and their contributions to Sufism, see: Zen Buddhism and Persian Culture, at: http://www.kavehfarrokh.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/zen_buddhism_and_persian_culture_v1.pdf &
http://homepage2.nifty.com/Mithra/english_index.html
In addition I’ve added a brief review of American transcendentalist systems which have widespread roots in several Eastern, Central Asian and Middle Eastern philosophies and religions. I added American Transcendental systems to this mix to help Americans realize that these ancient eastern philosophies are not totally foreign and strange at all, but have deep and meaningful roots in the U.S. as well. A tree, after all is a tree, wherever it may be.
Another essential fact deserves mention right at the beginning of any review such as this. Reading the following one might conclude that Sufism adopted some aspects of Buddhist philosophy and other disciplines, suggesting an India to Central Asia to Middle East flow of philosophical assimilation. In fact very diverse sources of information suggest that much of Buddhist (and Christian) philosophy originated from Mithraism in and around the Persian Empire (present day Iran and Central Asia), which dates back to about 1450 B.C.E. thus suggesting a kind of circular flow of information.
For more on the possible Persian origins of Buddhism and their contributions to Sufism, see: Zen Buddhism and Persian Culture, at: http://www.kavehfarrokh.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/zen_buddhism_and_persian_culture_v1.pdf &
http://homepage2.nifty.com/Mithra/english_index.html
Any discussion of ancient religions and philosophies would be incomplete without paying due respect to the fact that many of these beliefs have far older roots dating to about 2,500 BCE in Egypt, and before that probably to the rise of the first cities and civilizations in the Near East (Mesopotamia/Babylonia) around 3,000 BCE. Also it should be mentioned that the word “civilization” may be a misnomer from the point of view of the pastoral hunter/gatherer tribes they conquered, as civilizations usually grow from the bloodied spear points of their armies which appear anything but “civilized” to the vanquished.
Near the end of this paper I suggest that the development of at least some of the core tenants and mystical fringes of the great philosophies and religions were not linear, or circular in direction but rather reverberated up and down and around the graceful loops of the ancient Silk Roads in several directions simultaneously and usually harmoniously. A new theory of information flow in history (up to and including current events) influencing the development of a variety of religions, philosophies and martial arts is presented here on the pages of fightingartsasia.com. It's based on reverberations (reflecting sound waves) within the box part of a musical instrument. Though these were perhaps slow reverberation (like legato cello or bass violin) in regards to the development of religions and philosophies, it would have been much higher pitched (like staccato violin, guitar or drum) in regards to martial arts. Reverberating information flows in history and today move forward through time (with some illusion of reverse flow created by revisionist histories) in waves occurring simultaneously around the world clustered primarily within and to a lesser extent between major language groups, cultures, religions, martial arts etc. Finally at the end of this literature review I throw in an altogether different theory of the evolution of religion, not as a serious suggestion, but rather as an amusing afterthought. “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny,” (the growth and development of individuals mirrors the growth and development of all life) as the biologists say, and so with this family centered afterthought some microcosmic overtones may be illuminated. |
Sufism & American Transcendentalists
Scholars trace the origin of the word “Sufi” to two ancient Arabic meanings, one being Safa, which means “purity,” and the other Suf which means “wool.” According to some, wool is the more likely original meaning referring to wool cloaks worn by early Muslim ascetics. The Sufi poet al-Rudhabari wrote that “a Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity.”
Scholars trace the origin of the word “Sufi” to two ancient Arabic meanings, one being Safa, which means “purity,” and the other Suf which means “wool.” According to some, wool is the more likely original meaning referring to wool cloaks worn by early Muslim ascetics. The Sufi poet al-Rudhabari wrote that “a Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity.”
“Sufism has had several influential proponents in the West, particularly among the Transcendentalists, Carl Gustav Jung and Joseph Campbell, all of whom in turn had an influence on John Steinbeck. Ralph Waldo Emerson was one of the Western giants who diligently studied Sufism, by the end of his life having translated more than 700 lines of Sufi Poetry. Henry David Thoreau, James Freeman Clark and William Rounsville Alger also studied Sufism. Some of their fundamental beliefs, particularly their teaching of universal religion and spirituality, have close parallels with the Sufi poetry of Saadi of Shiraz, Hafiz, Attar and Karmani. Professor Farhang Jahanpour, a prominent Iranian Scholar, noted that:
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But to think that American transcendental philosophy was the same as Sufism would be radically incorrect:
“One might say that Thoreau was pre-Buddhist in much the same way that the Chinese Taoists were. He forecast an American Buddhism by the nature of his contemplation, in the same way that a certain quality of transparent predawn forecasts a clear morning. He lost himself in nature as the Chinese painters did, by becoming one with nature. He was certainly not the only one of his generation to live a contemplative life, but he was, it seems, one of the few to live it in a Buddhist way. That is to say, he was perhaps the first American to explore the nontheistic mode of contemplation which is the distinguishing mark of Buddhism. Emerson had abstracted God into the Universe, the Over-soul, or infused Him through Nature with a capital "N." Thoreau was after the bare facts, the hard rock-bottom of existence. His journals were filled with details, precise observations and data. Emerson had an idea of what was real, Melville had ransacked the visible world for the symbols behind it, but Thoreau had no theories. He was content to wait and see what was there… ‘I know that some will have hard thoughts of me, when they hear their Christ named beside my Buddha,’ he wrote in A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, ‘though I am sure that they should love their Christ more than my Buddha, love is the main thing.’” Rick Fields, Thoreau the Buddhist From: http://www.ralphmag.org/thoreau-swansJ.html
And yet, Taoists, Buddhists, and Muslims all believe in a philosophy that transcends ego for a greater self and higher moral code than materialism, whether of an ancient or modern age.
And yet, Taoists, Buddhists, and Muslims all believe in a philosophy that transcends ego for a greater self and higher moral code than materialism, whether of an ancient or modern age.
The “Self” in Islam
Nafs is an Arabic word used many times in the Quran which means self, ego, spirit or soul depending on the context. In the Quran, the word is used to refer to either the individual (e.g. verse 2:48) or human collective (verse 4:1).
The root word nun fa sin, is found 298 times in the Quran.
There are three primary stages of Nafs:
1. Inciting Nafs (an-nafs al-ammarah) which is the primitive, base instinct, and the false self. One tradition holds that the holy prophet of Islam Muhammad said after returning from a war, “We now return from the small struggle (Jihad Asghar) to the big struggle (Jihad Akbar).” His companions asked, “O Prophet of God, what is the big struggle?” He replied, “The struggle against nafs.”
2. The self-accusing nafs (an-nafs al-luwwamah) where conscience is awoken. In Sura al-Qiyama the Quran mentions “the self-accusing nafs.” The self accuses the person of listening to his or her ego. The person repents and asks for forgiveness.
3. The nafs at peace (an-nafs al-muṭmaʾinnah). In Sura al-Fajr the Qur'an mentions "the nafs at peace” This is the pinnacle ego state for Muslims. On this level one is firm in one’s faith and leaves bad manners behind. The soul becomes tranquil, at peace. At this stage, followers of Sufism have relieved themselves of all materialism and worldly problems and are satisfied with the will of God.
Nafs is an Arabic word used many times in the Quran which means self, ego, spirit or soul depending on the context. In the Quran, the word is used to refer to either the individual (e.g. verse 2:48) or human collective (verse 4:1).
The root word nun fa sin, is found 298 times in the Quran.
There are three primary stages of Nafs:
1. Inciting Nafs (an-nafs al-ammarah) which is the primitive, base instinct, and the false self. One tradition holds that the holy prophet of Islam Muhammad said after returning from a war, “We now return from the small struggle (Jihad Asghar) to the big struggle (Jihad Akbar).” His companions asked, “O Prophet of God, what is the big struggle?” He replied, “The struggle against nafs.”
2. The self-accusing nafs (an-nafs al-luwwamah) where conscience is awoken. In Sura al-Qiyama the Quran mentions “the self-accusing nafs.” The self accuses the person of listening to his or her ego. The person repents and asks for forgiveness.
3. The nafs at peace (an-nafs al-muṭmaʾinnah). In Sura al-Fajr the Qur'an mentions "the nafs at peace” This is the pinnacle ego state for Muslims. On this level one is firm in one’s faith and leaves bad manners behind. The soul becomes tranquil, at peace. At this stage, followers of Sufism have relieved themselves of all materialism and worldly problems and are satisfied with the will of God.
There is another version of this with seven stages:
1. The inciting nafs (an-nafs al-ʾammārah) 2. The self-accusing nafs (an-nafs al-luwwāmah) 3. The inspired nafs (an-nafs al-mulhamah) 4. The nafs at peace (an-nafs al-muṭmaʾinnah) 5. The pleased nafs (an-nafs ar-raḍīyyah) 6. The pleasing nafs (an-nafs al-marḍīyyah) 7. The pure nafs (an-nafs aṣ-ṣāfīyyah) |
These stages are not so very different from the Ten Ox-Herding Pictures (十牛 shíniú) of the Chinese Chan tradition (Zen) which emerged in the 12th century.
1. The Search for the Bull 2. Discovering the Footprints 3. Perceiving the Bull 4. Catching the Bull 5. Taming the Bull 6. Riding the Bull Home 7. The Bull Transcended 8. Both Bull and self transcended 9. Reaching the Source 10. In the World |
Though enormous distances and around six centuries separate these different traditions, they both describe the process of transcending the individual ego with its base desires and attaining unity of self, the material world and the Source (Chan tradition), or God (in the Islamic tradition.)
In the Lankavatara Sutra it says:
“Mahamati, since the ignorant and simple-minded, not know that the world is only something seen of the mind itself cling to the multitudinous of external objects, cling to the notions of being and non-being, oneness and otherness, duality and non-duality, existence and non-existence, eternity and non-eternity, and think that they have a self-nature of their own, and all of which rises from the discriminations of the mind and is perpetuated by habit-energy, and from which they are given over to false imagination. It is all like a mirage in which springs of water are seen as if they were real. They are thus imagined by animals that are made thirsty of the heat of the season soon after them. Animals not knowing that the springs are a hallucination of their own minds and not realize that there are no such springs. In the same way Mahamati the ignorant and simple-minded, their minds burning with the fires of greed, anger and folly, finding delight in a world of multitudinous forms, their thoughts obsessed with ideas of birth, growth and destruction not well understanding what is meant by existence and non-existence, and being impressed by erroneous discriminations and speculations since beginningless time fall into the habit of grasping this and that and thereby becoming attached to them.”
The Lankavatara Sutra – Self Realization of Noble Wisdom, Chapter 1, Adapted from translation by Suzuki and Goddard
“Mahamati, since the ignorant and simple-minded, not know that the world is only something seen of the mind itself cling to the multitudinous of external objects, cling to the notions of being and non-being, oneness and otherness, duality and non-duality, existence and non-existence, eternity and non-eternity, and think that they have a self-nature of their own, and all of which rises from the discriminations of the mind and is perpetuated by habit-energy, and from which they are given over to false imagination. It is all like a mirage in which springs of water are seen as if they were real. They are thus imagined by animals that are made thirsty of the heat of the season soon after them. Animals not knowing that the springs are a hallucination of their own minds and not realize that there are no such springs. In the same way Mahamati the ignorant and simple-minded, their minds burning with the fires of greed, anger and folly, finding delight in a world of multitudinous forms, their thoughts obsessed with ideas of birth, growth and destruction not well understanding what is meant by existence and non-existence, and being impressed by erroneous discriminations and speculations since beginningless time fall into the habit of grasping this and that and thereby becoming attached to them.”
The Lankavatara Sutra – Self Realization of Noble Wisdom, Chapter 1, Adapted from translation by Suzuki and Goddard
In Sufism one finds the seven characteristic of Nafs which must be overcome:
1. Pride (Takabbur)
2. Greed (Hirs)
3. Envy (Hasad)
4. Lust (Shahwah)
5. Backbiting (Gheebah)
6. Stinginess (Bokhl)
7. Malice (Keena)
These pitfalls created by selfishness, reflect a striking similarity to the many paths which lead the unwary astray as described in the Lankavatara Sutra and the “seven things which are an abomination to the Lord” as described in Hebrew Book of Proverbs 6:16-19:
1. A proud look
2. A lying tongue
3. Hands that shed innocent blood
4. A heart that devises wicked plots
5. Feet that are swift to run into mischief
6. A deceitful witness that uttereth lies
7. Him that soweth discord among brethren
Those who focus only on the differences between major religions are clearly: “barking up the wrong tree.”
1. Pride (Takabbur)
2. Greed (Hirs)
3. Envy (Hasad)
4. Lust (Shahwah)
5. Backbiting (Gheebah)
6. Stinginess (Bokhl)
7. Malice (Keena)
These pitfalls created by selfishness, reflect a striking similarity to the many paths which lead the unwary astray as described in the Lankavatara Sutra and the “seven things which are an abomination to the Lord” as described in Hebrew Book of Proverbs 6:16-19:
1. A proud look
2. A lying tongue
3. Hands that shed innocent blood
4. A heart that devises wicked plots
5. Feet that are swift to run into mischief
6. A deceitful witness that uttereth lies
7. Him that soweth discord among brethren
Those who focus only on the differences between major religions are clearly: “barking up the wrong tree.”
Other Sufi/Yogicara/Buddhist Connections
“The Sufistic exercise of spiritual concentration for the recollection of God (dhikr) is carried out by the retention of the breath (habs-i dam), attentive meditation (muraqaba) and concentration (tawajjuh) in fixed postures. These methods are usually understood to have been derived from the yogic traditions through Buddhist channels in the early stages of contact with Indian religions [Husain 1959: 305; Ahmad, Aziz 1964: 135- 136].”
Yogico-tantric Traditions in the Hawd al-Hayat P 136 https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjasas1989/2005/17/2005_17_135/_pdf
“The Sufistic exercise of spiritual concentration for the recollection of God (dhikr) is carried out by the retention of the breath (habs-i dam), attentive meditation (muraqaba) and concentration (tawajjuh) in fixed postures. These methods are usually understood to have been derived from the yogic traditions through Buddhist channels in the early stages of contact with Indian religions [Husain 1959: 305; Ahmad, Aziz 1964: 135- 136].”
Yogico-tantric Traditions in the Hawd al-Hayat P 136 https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjasas1989/2005/17/2005_17_135/_pdf
Habs-I dam (Breath regulation)
The science of breath, Prana definitely has Indian Yogacara roots dating back some 3,000 years, and has found central locations in virtually all religions, major philosophies and several branches Eastern and Western medicine.
The regulation and watching of breath can be found in several Sufi traditions. For the sake of brevity only a few are cited here.
“Nafas meaning breath, both in Arabic and Persian is a term which has been used throughout the history of Sufism particularly in the classical period. One of the earliest Sufi saints to use this term is Bayazid Basṭami (d. 260/874), who said “The worship of God (‘ibadat) for the mystics (ahl-i ma’rifat) is keeping watch over their own breaths (pas-i anfas).” Another saint is reported to have said: “The best act of worship is to count the breaths taken with (the remembrance of) God.” Through the practice of watching or counting his breaths, the Sufi may transcend the outer aspect of the breaths and begin to realize the inner and subtler qualities that exist in them. At this stage, breaths are said to be like a cool wind blowing from the domain of God’s nearness to cool down the heart of the Sufi, which is heated with the love of God. Hence, in explaining the meaning of nafas as a Sufi technical term, Abū Naṣr Sarrāṭ Tūsī (d. 378/988) writes: “Nafas is the pleasant cool breeze experienced by a heart that is burning (in the love of God).”
Pourjavady, Nasrollah, The Notion of the Breath (nafas) in Ḥallag, published in the journal Persica, Vol. 17, 2001, P. 85-90, and can be downloaded from: http://poj.peeters-leuven.be/content.php?id=501&url=article.php
The science of breath, Prana definitely has Indian Yogacara roots dating back some 3,000 years, and has found central locations in virtually all religions, major philosophies and several branches Eastern and Western medicine.
The regulation and watching of breath can be found in several Sufi traditions. For the sake of brevity only a few are cited here.
“Nafas meaning breath, both in Arabic and Persian is a term which has been used throughout the history of Sufism particularly in the classical period. One of the earliest Sufi saints to use this term is Bayazid Basṭami (d. 260/874), who said “The worship of God (‘ibadat) for the mystics (ahl-i ma’rifat) is keeping watch over their own breaths (pas-i anfas).” Another saint is reported to have said: “The best act of worship is to count the breaths taken with (the remembrance of) God.” Through the practice of watching or counting his breaths, the Sufi may transcend the outer aspect of the breaths and begin to realize the inner and subtler qualities that exist in them. At this stage, breaths are said to be like a cool wind blowing from the domain of God’s nearness to cool down the heart of the Sufi, which is heated with the love of God. Hence, in explaining the meaning of nafas as a Sufi technical term, Abū Naṣr Sarrāṭ Tūsī (d. 378/988) writes: “Nafas is the pleasant cool breeze experienced by a heart that is burning (in the love of God).”
Pourjavady, Nasrollah, The Notion of the Breath (nafas) in Ḥallag, published in the journal Persica, Vol. 17, 2001, P. 85-90, and can be downloaded from: http://poj.peeters-leuven.be/content.php?id=501&url=article.php
Breath is also used by Sufis as a part of health and medicine when combined with prayer:
The Importance and the Healing Power of Breath
“And remember when thy Lord said unto the angles:
Lo! I am creating a mortal out of potter’s clay of black mud altered
So, when I have made him and have breathed into him of My spirit.”
Quran 15:28-29
“And remember when thy Lord said unto the angles:
Lo! I am creating a mortal out of potter’s clay of black mud altered
So, when I have made him and have breathed into him of My spirit.”
Quran 15:28-29
“It is believed that there are five elements that form the human body: air, earth, water, fire and ether. Air is the voice or the breath that reaches the ether, the depts. Of the human body.
“It is from this belief that the Sufis find the healing power of their prayers. They believe that every vowel in the Arabic alphabet, a, I, u, direct breath to different parts of the body. Therefore, each prayer and sura (different chapters) oof the Quran helps to heal different illnesses, depending on the sounds it contains. This is a healing method one can perform to treat oneself.
“As told above, the shaykhs are most of the doctors of the local area they live in. The shaykhs that are especially trained in healing are called hakims. These shaykhs use the Baraka (the blessing of Allah) they have upon them to treat patients. One of the healing methods is called dam (breath) in Arabic. The shaykh utters verses from the Quran and blows the breath that carries the blessing of the God because of the shaykh’s Baraka and the power of the prayers upon the patient…”
Sehnaz Kiymaz, Sufi Treatments Methods and Philosophy Behind it, P. 12-13 Can be downloaded from: http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/2/02.pdf
“It is from this belief that the Sufis find the healing power of their prayers. They believe that every vowel in the Arabic alphabet, a, I, u, direct breath to different parts of the body. Therefore, each prayer and sura (different chapters) oof the Quran helps to heal different illnesses, depending on the sounds it contains. This is a healing method one can perform to treat oneself.
“As told above, the shaykhs are most of the doctors of the local area they live in. The shaykhs that are especially trained in healing are called hakims. These shaykhs use the Baraka (the blessing of Allah) they have upon them to treat patients. One of the healing methods is called dam (breath) in Arabic. The shaykh utters verses from the Quran and blows the breath that carries the blessing of the God because of the shaykh’s Baraka and the power of the prayers upon the patient…”
Sehnaz Kiymaz, Sufi Treatments Methods and Philosophy Behind it, P. 12-13 Can be downloaded from: http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/2/02.pdf
The Naqshbandi Nazimiyya Sufi Order and breath
“The Naqshbandi Nazimiyya sufi order was established by Shaykh Hisham Kabbani based on the teachings of the 40th imam of the Naqshbandi Golden Chain, Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani. The mission of the Naqshbandi-Nazimiyya Sufi Order is to spread the Sufi teachings of the brotherhood of mankind and the Unity of belief in God that is present in all religions and spiritual paths. Its efforts are directed at bringing the diverse spectrum of religions and spiritual paths into harmony and concord, in recognition of mankind’s responsibility as caretaker of this fragile planet and of one another.
Abdul Khaliq al-Ghujdawani coined the following phrases which are now considered the principles of the Naqshbandi Sufi Order:
Conscious Breathing (“Hosh dar dam”)
Hosh means “mind.” Dar means “in.” Dam means “breath.” It means, according to Abdul Khaliq al-Ghujdawani (q), that “the wise seeker must safeguard his breath from heedlessness, coming in and going out, thereby keeping his heart always in the Divine Presence; and he must revive his breath with worship and servitude and dispatch this worship to His Lord full of life, for every breath which is inhaled and exhaled with Presence is alive and connected with the Divine Presence. Every breath inhaled and exhaled with heedlessness is dead, disconnected from the Divine Presence.”
Ubaidullah al-Ahrar (q) said, “The most important mission for the seeker in this Order is to safeguard his breath, and he who cannot safeguard his breath, it would be said of him, ‘he lost himself.’”
Shah Naqshband (q) said, “This Order is built on breath. So it is a must for everyone to safeguard his breath in the time of his inhalation and exhalation and further, to safeguard his breath in the interval between the inhalation and exhalation.”
Shaikh Abul Janab Najmuddin al-Kubra said in his book, Fawatih al-Jamal, “Dhikr is flowing in the body of every single living creatures by the necessity of their breath — even without will — as a sign of obedience, which is part of their creation. Through their breathing, the sound of the letter “Ha” of the Divine Name Allah is made with every exhalation and inhalation and it is a sign of the Unseen Essence serving to emphasize the Uniqueness of God. Therefore it is necessary to be present with that breathing, in order to realize the Essence of the Creator.”
“The name ‘Allah’ which encompasses the ninety-nine Names and Attributes consists of four letters, Alif, Lam, Lam and the same Hah (ALLAH). The people of Sufism say that the absolute unseen Essence of Allah Exalted and Almighty is expressed by the last letter vowelized by the Alif, “Ha.” It represents the Absolutely Unseen “He-ness” of the Exalted God (Ghayb al-Huwiyya al-Mutlaqa lillah ‘azza wa jall). The first Lam is for the sake of identification (tacrif) and the second Lam is for the sake of emphasis (mubalagha).
Safeguarding your breath from heedlessness will lead you to complete Presence, and complete Presence will lead you to complete Vision, and complete Vision will lead you to complete Manifestation of Allah’s Ninety-Nine Names and Attributes. Allah leads you to the Manifestation of His Ninety-Nine Names and Attributes and all His other Attributes, because it is said, “Allah’s Attributes are as numerous as the breaths of human beings.”
http://www.naqshbandi.org/the-tariqa/about/
“The Naqshbandi Nazimiyya sufi order was established by Shaykh Hisham Kabbani based on the teachings of the 40th imam of the Naqshbandi Golden Chain, Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani. The mission of the Naqshbandi-Nazimiyya Sufi Order is to spread the Sufi teachings of the brotherhood of mankind and the Unity of belief in God that is present in all religions and spiritual paths. Its efforts are directed at bringing the diverse spectrum of religions and spiritual paths into harmony and concord, in recognition of mankind’s responsibility as caretaker of this fragile planet and of one another.
Abdul Khaliq al-Ghujdawani coined the following phrases which are now considered the principles of the Naqshbandi Sufi Order:
Conscious Breathing (“Hosh dar dam”)
Hosh means “mind.” Dar means “in.” Dam means “breath.” It means, according to Abdul Khaliq al-Ghujdawani (q), that “the wise seeker must safeguard his breath from heedlessness, coming in and going out, thereby keeping his heart always in the Divine Presence; and he must revive his breath with worship and servitude and dispatch this worship to His Lord full of life, for every breath which is inhaled and exhaled with Presence is alive and connected with the Divine Presence. Every breath inhaled and exhaled with heedlessness is dead, disconnected from the Divine Presence.”
Ubaidullah al-Ahrar (q) said, “The most important mission for the seeker in this Order is to safeguard his breath, and he who cannot safeguard his breath, it would be said of him, ‘he lost himself.’”
Shah Naqshband (q) said, “This Order is built on breath. So it is a must for everyone to safeguard his breath in the time of his inhalation and exhalation and further, to safeguard his breath in the interval between the inhalation and exhalation.”
Shaikh Abul Janab Najmuddin al-Kubra said in his book, Fawatih al-Jamal, “Dhikr is flowing in the body of every single living creatures by the necessity of their breath — even without will — as a sign of obedience, which is part of their creation. Through their breathing, the sound of the letter “Ha” of the Divine Name Allah is made with every exhalation and inhalation and it is a sign of the Unseen Essence serving to emphasize the Uniqueness of God. Therefore it is necessary to be present with that breathing, in order to realize the Essence of the Creator.”
“The name ‘Allah’ which encompasses the ninety-nine Names and Attributes consists of four letters, Alif, Lam, Lam and the same Hah (ALLAH). The people of Sufism say that the absolute unseen Essence of Allah Exalted and Almighty is expressed by the last letter vowelized by the Alif, “Ha.” It represents the Absolutely Unseen “He-ness” of the Exalted God (Ghayb al-Huwiyya al-Mutlaqa lillah ‘azza wa jall). The first Lam is for the sake of identification (tacrif) and the second Lam is for the sake of emphasis (mubalagha).
Safeguarding your breath from heedlessness will lead you to complete Presence, and complete Presence will lead you to complete Vision, and complete Vision will lead you to complete Manifestation of Allah’s Ninety-Nine Names and Attributes. Allah leads you to the Manifestation of His Ninety-Nine Names and Attributes and all His other Attributes, because it is said, “Allah’s Attributes are as numerous as the breaths of human beings.”
http://www.naqshbandi.org/the-tariqa/about/
Muraqaba (Meditation)
Check any Chinese English dictionary and one finds that “Chan” (Zen) in English means “meditation.” One watches, observes the flow of mind without grasping.
Al-Raqib, is one of the 99 names of Allah, means “the Watchful” (also the “Vigilant”) and is referred to in Verse 4:1 of the Qur’an:
“In accordance with this attribute of Allah, humanity should realize that in addition to Allah ar-Raqib, the loving merciful watcher, there are two other watchers, deadly enemies who watch you all the time to find an appropriate time and a weak spot to attack you; to possess, to torture, to kill you. These two wakeful enemies are the accursed Devil and the insatiable egoist, the nafs.
“You must will all the awareness within your power, and watch every minute the moves of these two enemies who have surrounded you from four sides and from the inside.
“Abd ar-Raqib is more aware of Allah watching him and everything else than he is aware of his own existence. Consequently he is unable to cross the borders of Allah’s prescriptions. Nobody but a person blessed by the manifestation of this Name is totally conscious and totally in control of himself and others around him. In reality, ‘Abd ar-Raqib is an expression of Allah’s watching over him and others.”
http://debrawakitsch.com/divine-qualities-3/divine-qualities-q-w-2/al-raqib/
Check any Chinese English dictionary and one finds that “Chan” (Zen) in English means “meditation.” One watches, observes the flow of mind without grasping.
Al-Raqib, is one of the 99 names of Allah, means “the Watchful” (also the “Vigilant”) and is referred to in Verse 4:1 of the Qur’an:
“In accordance with this attribute of Allah, humanity should realize that in addition to Allah ar-Raqib, the loving merciful watcher, there are two other watchers, deadly enemies who watch you all the time to find an appropriate time and a weak spot to attack you; to possess, to torture, to kill you. These two wakeful enemies are the accursed Devil and the insatiable egoist, the nafs.
“You must will all the awareness within your power, and watch every minute the moves of these two enemies who have surrounded you from four sides and from the inside.
“Abd ar-Raqib is more aware of Allah watching him and everything else than he is aware of his own existence. Consequently he is unable to cross the borders of Allah’s prescriptions. Nobody but a person blessed by the manifestation of this Name is totally conscious and totally in control of himself and others around him. In reality, ‘Abd ar-Raqib is an expression of Allah’s watching over him and others.”
http://debrawakitsch.com/divine-qualities-3/divine-qualities-q-w-2/al-raqib/
Tawajjuh (concentration)
Translated as spiritual “concentration,” “orientation,” or “attentiveness,” tawajjuh literally means
turning the face toward something. Tawajjuh is often used in the context of turning one’s face
toward God or God’s disclosing itself to the Sufi wayfarer (salik) in return.
For more on Tawjjuh, also see The Daily Life of a Saint, Ahmad Sirhindi, by Badr al-Din Sirhindi: “He is sur- rounded by disciples, both novices and adepts, whom he counsels on the basis of
his profound mystical insights; he can also act directly on their inner states through his power
of concentration (tawajjuh), a faculty particularly cultivated by Naqshbandi masters…”
Tashbih and Tanzih In Islam (Closeness and distance from Allah)
In some ways like the Yin and Yang of Confucianism, and Daoism, Tashbih and Tanzih refer to opposite but complimentary concepts. Tashbih means “closeness” affirming similarity with the best in humanity, and is associated with Allah’s right hand of compassion and mercy whereas Tanzih refers to Allah’s transcendent distance from humanity, and to his left hand of wrath.
A fascinating dissertation by Lloyd Ridgeon titled: Nothing but the Truth: The Sufi Testament of Aziz Nasafi gives insight into the Sufi interpretation of this dichotomous complementary/contradictory understanding of humanity’s relationship with God.
“There has been a tendency by scholars to explain Ibn Arabi’s theosophy in the simple term ‘unity of existence’ (wahdat al-wujüd), and to label the world view of the wujudi school pantheistic or monist. A more suitable way to characterize this theosophy is not unity of existence (a term which Ibn Arabi did not use), but He/not He. This axiom neatly encapsulates the Islamic teaching of God’s incomparability (tanzih) and similarity (tashbih). Aziz Nasafi's works should also be considered in the same light. The idea of incomparability is expressed in the Koran that ‘Nothing is like Him,’ and in the Hadith that “none knows God but God,” and ‘reflect upon all things but reflect not upon God’s essence.’ Similarity is also found in the Islamic tradition, perhaps the best example being the famous Hadith that “God made Adam in His own form.” Adam is of course the archetypal human being, so each person’s essence in fact is a mirror of God’s essence…”
“The meaning behind such remarks by Nasafi is that man should reach the essence of God as far as it is possible, that is, he should reach the essence of God as seen through tashbih. Thus whenever Nasafi speaks of reaching God's essence, one should read with two eyes (to borrow an analogy from Ibn Arabi), that is, with one eye of tashbih and with one eye of tanzih.”
http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/534/1/uk_bl_ethos_497663.pdf
Translated as spiritual “concentration,” “orientation,” or “attentiveness,” tawajjuh literally means
turning the face toward something. Tawajjuh is often used in the context of turning one’s face
toward God or God’s disclosing itself to the Sufi wayfarer (salik) in return.
For more on Tawjjuh, also see The Daily Life of a Saint, Ahmad Sirhindi, by Badr al-Din Sirhindi: “He is sur- rounded by disciples, both novices and adepts, whom he counsels on the basis of
his profound mystical insights; he can also act directly on their inner states through his power
of concentration (tawajjuh), a faculty particularly cultivated by Naqshbandi masters…”
Tashbih and Tanzih In Islam (Closeness and distance from Allah)
In some ways like the Yin and Yang of Confucianism, and Daoism, Tashbih and Tanzih refer to opposite but complimentary concepts. Tashbih means “closeness” affirming similarity with the best in humanity, and is associated with Allah’s right hand of compassion and mercy whereas Tanzih refers to Allah’s transcendent distance from humanity, and to his left hand of wrath.
A fascinating dissertation by Lloyd Ridgeon titled: Nothing but the Truth: The Sufi Testament of Aziz Nasafi gives insight into the Sufi interpretation of this dichotomous complementary/contradictory understanding of humanity’s relationship with God.
“There has been a tendency by scholars to explain Ibn Arabi’s theosophy in the simple term ‘unity of existence’ (wahdat al-wujüd), and to label the world view of the wujudi school pantheistic or monist. A more suitable way to characterize this theosophy is not unity of existence (a term which Ibn Arabi did not use), but He/not He. This axiom neatly encapsulates the Islamic teaching of God’s incomparability (tanzih) and similarity (tashbih). Aziz Nasafi's works should also be considered in the same light. The idea of incomparability is expressed in the Koran that ‘Nothing is like Him,’ and in the Hadith that “none knows God but God,” and ‘reflect upon all things but reflect not upon God’s essence.’ Similarity is also found in the Islamic tradition, perhaps the best example being the famous Hadith that “God made Adam in His own form.” Adam is of course the archetypal human being, so each person’s essence in fact is a mirror of God’s essence…”
“The meaning behind such remarks by Nasafi is that man should reach the essence of God as far as it is possible, that is, he should reach the essence of God as seen through tashbih. Thus whenever Nasafi speaks of reaching God's essence, one should read with two eyes (to borrow an analogy from Ibn Arabi), that is, with one eye of tashbih and with one eye of tanzih.”
http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/534/1/uk_bl_ethos_497663.pdf
Non-dualism
Sankara’s Advaita Bedanta and Abu Yazid al Bistami
“In the first half of the 19th Century the astute German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer pointed out that Sufism is thoroughly Indian in spirit and origin. The renowned Sufi mystic and ascetic Mansur al-Hallaj (d. 922), visited the Sindh in northwest India around 895 and reportedly accepted the doctrines of pantheism and reincarnation. Sufism is analogous to Hinduism and Buddhism in teaching; a mystical path (tariqa) to God, concentration on a mental image (muraqba), Divine unity (tawhid), meditation accompanied by breath control (habs-i-dam), the use of rosary, monasticism and the practice of renunciation. Sufis like Vedantists believe in the essential unity of all religions, reincarnation and the Divine immanence of God. It is difficult to determine if the Sufis learned of these concepts and practices from the Hindus, Buddhists or Christians, or if they were indigenous to the Muslim religion.”
“It has been pointed out by Harry Wolfson that Islamic ideas concerning atomism, the eternity of religious scriptures, necessary causation and other topics were read by Jews of Moslem Spain and soon became central themes in Jewish philosophy and theology. Some of the ideas of Jewish philosophy later influenced Christian philosophers in the Middle Ages like Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274).”
Gopal Stavig, Congruencies between Indian and Islamic Philosophy, P. 226
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41694615?seq=14#page_scan_tab_contents
In Islam, mainstream or otherwise, there are five levels of approval: Wajib (Obligatory), Mustahabb (recommended), Halal (permitted), Makruh (offensive, detestable), and Haram (forbidden). In the above quote accepting “the doctrines of pantheism and reincarnation,” and reincarnation are indeed haram, whereas perhaps most of those activities found in the quote above by Gopal Stavig sound generally Halal, keeping in mind that how practices are performed and interpreted can have a lot to do with its permissibility and potential rewards vs. punishments.
In any case, a study of the very diverse body of Sufi practices does strongly suggest wide exchanges between ancient religions at quite early stages in history and the vast majority of them are not forbidden in Islam (with a few strict exceptions). One might also note that it’s a pity some Sufis openly “crossed the line” into strictly forbidden territory, at least partly explaining why some Islamic leaders in the past and today actively suppress Sufi philosophy.
In my search for a non-dualistic philosophy within Sufi belief systems I stumbled into a rather illuminating paper by Rudolph Bauer, obscurely titled: Dzogcehn as a Phenomenological Theophanic Manifestation.
Sankara’s Advaita Bedanta and Abu Yazid al Bistami
“In the first half of the 19th Century the astute German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer pointed out that Sufism is thoroughly Indian in spirit and origin. The renowned Sufi mystic and ascetic Mansur al-Hallaj (d. 922), visited the Sindh in northwest India around 895 and reportedly accepted the doctrines of pantheism and reincarnation. Sufism is analogous to Hinduism and Buddhism in teaching; a mystical path (tariqa) to God, concentration on a mental image (muraqba), Divine unity (tawhid), meditation accompanied by breath control (habs-i-dam), the use of rosary, monasticism and the practice of renunciation. Sufis like Vedantists believe in the essential unity of all religions, reincarnation and the Divine immanence of God. It is difficult to determine if the Sufis learned of these concepts and practices from the Hindus, Buddhists or Christians, or if they were indigenous to the Muslim religion.”
“It has been pointed out by Harry Wolfson that Islamic ideas concerning atomism, the eternity of religious scriptures, necessary causation and other topics were read by Jews of Moslem Spain and soon became central themes in Jewish philosophy and theology. Some of the ideas of Jewish philosophy later influenced Christian philosophers in the Middle Ages like Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274).”
Gopal Stavig, Congruencies between Indian and Islamic Philosophy, P. 226
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41694615?seq=14#page_scan_tab_contents
In Islam, mainstream or otherwise, there are five levels of approval: Wajib (Obligatory), Mustahabb (recommended), Halal (permitted), Makruh (offensive, detestable), and Haram (forbidden). In the above quote accepting “the doctrines of pantheism and reincarnation,” and reincarnation are indeed haram, whereas perhaps most of those activities found in the quote above by Gopal Stavig sound generally Halal, keeping in mind that how practices are performed and interpreted can have a lot to do with its permissibility and potential rewards vs. punishments.
In any case, a study of the very diverse body of Sufi practices does strongly suggest wide exchanges between ancient religions at quite early stages in history and the vast majority of them are not forbidden in Islam (with a few strict exceptions). One might also note that it’s a pity some Sufis openly “crossed the line” into strictly forbidden territory, at least partly explaining why some Islamic leaders in the past and today actively suppress Sufi philosophy.
In my search for a non-dualistic philosophy within Sufi belief systems I stumbled into a rather illuminating paper by Rudolph Bauer, obscurely titled: Dzogcehn as a Phenomenological Theophanic Manifestation.
The paper begins cryptically enough…
“The Greek word phaino means to show, manifest or display or to appear. (Apparition, manifestation, to show) Phanino means to bring to light or to bring into appearance. Phaneros means to show or display, to manifest. Phenomenology as method comes from this word. The experience of appearance… the unfolding of multidimensional appearance…the articulation of appearance. As knowledge, the path of Dzogchen is the path of awareness within appearance and appearance within awareness. The path of phenomenology is the articulation of appearance within experience.” …but forging stoically ahead, before long one stumbles into hidden gardens within a cool oasis… “There was this amazing and secret group that crossed the boundaries of Sufism and Christian Medievals ... The Sufi Ibn Arabi in 1201 falls in love with a young woman named Nizam Ayn ... on human love and the mysterious conjuncio as the direct manifestation of nondual oneness.” |
“The singularity of love, of the beloved , is the singularity of eachness or suchness. The cosmic within the personal. In the theophanic love, all love is cosmic; cosmic compassion and personal. In our poor society eros has become sexuality and a kind of discharge mechanics. But within Greek philosophy and Dzogchen and Mahamudra as well as certain Sufi and Christian alchemical philosophies, love is eros. And of course love masters us and love is the theophanic manifestation. You and I are theophanic manifestations of pure love.
“Love, Eros is God…and God is Eros. Ubi charitas et amor dues ibi est
“It is not love that the lover falls in love with, but the divinity made manifest by love.
“As Danti describes in his first sight of Beatrice, who is cosmic and personal. For the Dzogchen Shavite as well as the Sufism of Ilb Arabi, love is cosmic personal, love is always theophanic.
“Wherever you love there is God.”
Sufi Ibn Arabi (1201)
The full text can be downloaded from: http://philpapers.org/rec/RUDDAA
“Love, Eros is God…and God is Eros. Ubi charitas et amor dues ibi est
“It is not love that the lover falls in love with, but the divinity made manifest by love.
“As Danti describes in his first sight of Beatrice, who is cosmic and personal. For the Dzogchen Shavite as well as the Sufism of Ilb Arabi, love is cosmic personal, love is always theophanic.
“Wherever you love there is God.”
Sufi Ibn Arabi (1201)
The full text can be downloaded from: http://philpapers.org/rec/RUDDAA
The roots of this are vastly more ancient than any spoken philosophy, echoing back to the very origin of sexual dimorphism (in insects, fish, reptiles, birds and mammals), reverberating up through most philosophies and religions, though vailed in various forms. Note: Most plants are hermaphroditic but approximately 6% have separate males and females.
The following is from the book Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism, by Dan Lusthaus on the same subject:
“Kamadeva – The divine Kama realm. In this realm the various traditions and texts begin to exhibit significant divergences. For instance, in the Pali tradition, particularly following Buddhaghosa, the kamavacara sugatibhumi (lit. ‘pleasant [reward] stage of the Eros field’) includes the human realm as well as the divine Kama heavens. Among other things, this indicates that desire (Kama) per se is not taken to signify an a priori evil, since even within the realm of desire, certain desires may yield pleasant and beneficial fruits.” (P. 86-87) Portions of this book may be accessed at: https://books.google.com/books?id=j0TKAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Published by Routledge, Feb. 4, 2014 (And, yes, they're talking and making babies, emphasizing the point that desire is not always bad...!) Note: Yogacara is a 4th Century CE branch of Buddhism and references above are not to be confused with the Indian Hindu text “Kamasutra” which was composed between 400 BCE and 200 CE. Kama here means “desire,” one of the four goals of Hindu life, thus a bit different from later Buddhism philosophies. |
American Transcendentalism - Its Roots and Flowers
Emerson and Thoreau were originally men of cities who found sanctuary in nature, a womb-like harmony which spoke of inner truths they didn’t find in the materialism of post-modernist American New England. In contrast, the monotheistic prophets, especially Judaic and Muslim were from deep desert environments. It is easy to fall in love with the wondrous beautify and harmony of the New England forests and lakes, however they didn’t really have to deal with the terror and death of desert environments where the heat of day can kill you as can the cold of night, snakes, scorpions, and tribal feuds, highway robberies of all kinds, and passions born of 10,000 other causes. It is easy to love nature until one looks down and sees the tiger eating one’s own liver.
In some ways the American transcendentalists may have been innocents simply escaping post-modern materialism and angst, where the great terrors were things like home mortgages (in the case of Thoreau who built his own house on Walden's Pond for under $30) and distant wars (again in the case of Thoreau who protested the Spanish American war). It is indeed difficult or impossible for people from developed worlds to conceive of the immediacy and need for strict moral codes to enforce some kind of order in the wilderness far beyond what the American transcendentalists so loved. Yet, the American transcendentalists were wise enough to notice the wisdom of the ancients in Sufism, Buddhism and other ancient belief systems and incorporate the power and grandeur of those systems into their own evolving understandings of man’s place in the universe. That said I hope the more strict believers of the world have compassion for their innocence and good intentions. Buddhists, especially of the Chan (Zen) school and Sufis may well comfortably reside somewhere between the extremes of desert prophets and American transcendentalists, serving in some ways as bridges between radically different worlds and similar but different physical, social and transcendent/spiritual needs.
Emerson and Thoreau were originally men of cities who found sanctuary in nature, a womb-like harmony which spoke of inner truths they didn’t find in the materialism of post-modernist American New England. In contrast, the monotheistic prophets, especially Judaic and Muslim were from deep desert environments. It is easy to fall in love with the wondrous beautify and harmony of the New England forests and lakes, however they didn’t really have to deal with the terror and death of desert environments where the heat of day can kill you as can the cold of night, snakes, scorpions, and tribal feuds, highway robberies of all kinds, and passions born of 10,000 other causes. It is easy to love nature until one looks down and sees the tiger eating one’s own liver.
In some ways the American transcendentalists may have been innocents simply escaping post-modern materialism and angst, where the great terrors were things like home mortgages (in the case of Thoreau who built his own house on Walden's Pond for under $30) and distant wars (again in the case of Thoreau who protested the Spanish American war). It is indeed difficult or impossible for people from developed worlds to conceive of the immediacy and need for strict moral codes to enforce some kind of order in the wilderness far beyond what the American transcendentalists so loved. Yet, the American transcendentalists were wise enough to notice the wisdom of the ancients in Sufism, Buddhism and other ancient belief systems and incorporate the power and grandeur of those systems into their own evolving understandings of man’s place in the universe. That said I hope the more strict believers of the world have compassion for their innocence and good intentions. Buddhists, especially of the Chan (Zen) school and Sufis may well comfortably reside somewhere between the extremes of desert prophets and American transcendentalists, serving in some ways as bridges between radically different worlds and similar but different physical, social and transcendent/spiritual needs.
Reverberations in Musical Instruments
The word “reverberation” means to be reflected many times, as in the sound waves from the walls of a confined space, such as the box of a drum, violin, guitar, or piano.
The strings of violins, guitars and pianos are fixed at both ends, and plucking, strumming or drawing a bow across the strings creates a vibration in the form of a standing wave pattern. But this is only the small sound of a musical instrument.
The sounds we associate with different instruments are really the “overtones,” the other frequencies besides the fundamental that exist in musical instruments created by reverberations of sound waves from the much smaller standing wave pattern within the box and determined by the shape, materials, etc. http://method-behind-the-music.com/mechanics/physics/
Every musical instrument has a “sweet spot,” which can be the place on the instrument which produces the best sound, or it can mean that place in or around the instrument where the sound is best, which is where sound engineers put the microphone. So, it can be the best place to produce, or hear the sweetest sound.
So what the heck does all this have to do with great philosophies, religions, information flow, etc?
The word “reverberation” means to be reflected many times, as in the sound waves from the walls of a confined space, such as the box of a drum, violin, guitar, or piano.
The strings of violins, guitars and pianos are fixed at both ends, and plucking, strumming or drawing a bow across the strings creates a vibration in the form of a standing wave pattern. But this is only the small sound of a musical instrument.
The sounds we associate with different instruments are really the “overtones,” the other frequencies besides the fundamental that exist in musical instruments created by reverberations of sound waves from the much smaller standing wave pattern within the box and determined by the shape, materials, etc. http://method-behind-the-music.com/mechanics/physics/
Every musical instrument has a “sweet spot,” which can be the place on the instrument which produces the best sound, or it can mean that place in or around the instrument where the sound is best, which is where sound engineers put the microphone. So, it can be the best place to produce, or hear the sweetest sound.
So what the heck does all this have to do with great philosophies, religions, information flow, etc?
Well, maybe the Silk Road is like the sting fixed at both ends (one’s origin and destination), and the people and their experiences, philosophies and religions are like the shapes and materials of the instruments’ box that produce the overtones.
These people and their shared experiences and beliefs, music and laughter, cries and poetry have reverberated up and down and around and around that old Road for more than 2,000 years. Indeed some sections in Iraq, Iran, Syria, Turkey are probably closer to 8,000 and 10,000 years old. Yep, older than the Roman roads. And where might sweet spots be found? Perhaps in desert oasis when the cool of the evening re-enlivens the mortal instruments traveling by or maybe lush cool mountain valleys, or just about anywhere or anything that help people felt good like a songbird at dawn. And good most people probably did feel traveling that ancient road, because commerce and trade mean prosperity, and prosperity means hope for people, their families, communities and nations and hope is sweet. |
See Part II: Roots of Shaolin Kung Fu on next page!